Aviation Security

Airport security refers to the techniques and methods used in protecting passengers, staff and aircraft which use the airports from accidental/malicious harm, crime and other threats.

Large numbers of people pass through airports every day. This presents potential targets for terrorism and other forms of crime because of the number of people located in a particular location.  Similarly, the high concentration of people on large airliners, the potential high death rate with attacks on aircraft, and the ability to use a hijacked airplane as a lethal weapon may provide an alluring target for terrorism, whether or not they succeed due their high profile nature following the various attacks and attempts around the globe in recent years.

Airport security attempts to prevent any threats or potentially dangerous situations from arising or entering the country. If airport security does succeed in this, then the chances of any dangerous situations, illegal items or threats entering into both aircraft, country or airport are greatly reduced. As such, airport security serves several purposes: To protect the airport and country from any threatening events, to reassure the traveling public that they are safe and to protect the country and their people.

Monte R. Belger of the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration notes "The goal of aviation security is to prevent harm to aircraft, passengers, and crew, as well as support national security and counter-terrorism policy."

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), is a specialized agency of the United Nations. It codifies the principles and techniques of international air navigation and fosters the planning and development of international air transport to ensure safe and orderly growth. Its headquarters are located in the Quartier International of Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

The ICAO Council adopts standards and recommended practices concerning air navigation, its infrastructure, flight inspection, prevention of unlawful interference, and facilitation of border-crossing procedures for international civil aviation. ICAO defines the protocols for air accident investigation followed by transport safety authorities in countries signatory to the Convention on International Civil Aviation (Chicago Convention).

The Air Navigation Commission (ANC) is the technical body within ICAO. The Commission is composed of 19 Commissioners, nominated by the ICAO's contracting states, and appointed by the ICAO Council. Commissioners serve as independent experts, who although nominated by their states, do not serve as state or political representatives. The development of Aviation Standards and Recommended Practices is done under the direction of the ANC through the formal process of ICAO Panels. Once approved by the Commission, standards are sent to the Council, the political body of ICAO, for consultation and coordination with the Member States before final adoption.

ICAO should not be confused with the International Air Transport Association (IATA), a trade association representing a small proportion of the world’s airlines, (240 members), also headquartered in Montreal, or with the Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation (CANSO), an organization for Air Navigation Service Providers (ANSPs) with its headquarters at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol in the Netherlands. These are trade associations representing specific aviation interests, whereas ICAO is a body of the United Nations.

History

The forerunner to ICAO was the International Commission for Air Navigation (ICAN). It held its first convention in 1903 in Berlin, Germany but no agreements were reached among the eight countries that attended. At the second convention in 1906, also held in Berlin, 27 countries attended. The third convention, held in London in 1912 allocated the first radio callsigns for use by aircraft. ICAN continued to operate until 1945.

Fifty-two countries signed the Convention on International Civil Aviation, also known as the Chicago Convention, in Chicago, Illinois, on 7 December 1944. Under its terms, a Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization (PICAO) was to be established, to be replaced in turn by a permanent organization when 26 countries ratified the convention. Accordingly, PICAO began operating on 6 June 1945, replacing ICAN. The 26th country ratified the Convention on 5 March 1947 and, consequently PICAO was disestablished on 4 April 1947 and replaced by ICAO, which began operations the same day. In October 1947, ICAO became an agency of the United Nations linked to the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).

2013 proposal to relocate headquarters to Qatar

In April 2013, the state of Qatar offered to serve as the new permanent seat of the Organization starting in 2016. The offer must be considered by all of ICAO's 191 Member States at the next convening of the triennial ICAO Assembly, which will take place from 24 September through 4 October 2013. A minimum of three-fifths (60%) of ICAO's Member States must agree to the Qatar proposal for it to be approved. According to ICAO spokesman Anthony Philbin, there has never been an official request to move the ICAO since its creation. Qatar, which has promised to construct a massive new headquarters for the ICAO and cover all moving expenses, has stated that Montreal "was too far from Europe and Asia", "had cold winters," was hard to attend due to the refusal of the Canadian government to provide visas in a timely manner, and that the taxes imposed on the ICAO by Canada are too high.

According to the Globe and Mail, the move to relocate the ICAO is at least partly motivated by the Pro-Israel foreign policy of Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper. Citing anonymous sources, the Globe and Mail reported that Arab ambassadors to the United Nations met in April 2013 in New York, where, among other things, they "devoted a section of their agenda to countering Canada, including mustering allies from other countries to vote against Ottawa in international organizations." It was also reported that "Some Arab countries are eyeing moves to back [Qatar] by campaigning to win the votes of other states." The Globe commented that "Arab nations already looking to deal a blow to Ottawa for its stand on Palestinian issues could wield influence if they united behind the ICAO campaign" and that "Losing ICAO's Montreal headquarters would be more than the diplomatic embarrassment the Harper Conservatives."

France, Britain and the United States announced that they opposed moving the organization.

Approximately one month later, Qatar withdrew its bid to move ICAO headquarters, meaning that the organization will remain in Montreal. Reportedly, Qatar's withdrawal came after a separate proposal to the ICAO's governing council to move the ICAO triennial conference to Doha was defeated by a vote of 22–14. According to French delegate Michel Wachenheim, "This conference of the general assembly was to be held in Montreal, as it always is … and twenty-two of the 36 said no, they thought that moving it (to Doha) four months before a general assembly was far too complicated." Wachenheim also stated that, "at our meeting this (Friday) morning, we learned that Qatar had withdrawn its offer (to move the HQ)."

Statute

The 9th edition of the Convention on International Civil Aviation includes modifications from 1948 up to year 2006. ICAO refers to its current edition of the Convention as the Statute, and designates it as ICAO Doc 7300/9. The Convention has 19 Annexes that are listed by title in the article Convention on International Civil Aviation.

Membership

As of November 2011, there are 191 ICAO members, consisting of 190 of the 193 UN members (all but Dominica, Liechtenstein, and Tuvalu), plus the Cook Islands.

Liechtenstein has delegated Switzerland to implement the treaty to make it applicable in the territory of Liechtenstein. 

Governing Council

The Governing Council is elected every 3 years and consists of 36 members divided into 3 categories. The present Council was elected on October 1, 2013 at the 38th Assembly of ICAO at Montreal. The Structure of present Council is as follows:

§  PART I – (States of chief importance in air transport) – Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russian Federation, United Kingdom and the United States. All of them have been re-elected.

§  PART II – (States which make the largest contribution to the provision of facilities for international civil air navigation) – Argentina, Egypt, India, Mexico, Nigeria, Norway, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Africa, Spain and Venezuela. Except Norway, Portugal and Venezuela, all others have been re-elected.

§  PART III– (States ensuring geographic representation)- Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chile, Dominican Republic, Kenya, Libya, Malaysia, Nicaragua, Poland, Republic of Korea, United Arab Emirates and United Republic of Tanzania. Bolivia, Chile, Dominican Republic, Kenya, Libya, Nicaragua, Poland and United Republic of Tanzania have been elected for the first time.

Standards

ICAO also standardizes certain functions for use in the airline industry, such as the Aeronautical Message Handling System (AMHS). This makes it a standards organization.

Each country should have an accessible Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP), based on standards defined by ICAO, containing information essential to air navigation. Countries are required to update their AIP manuals every 28 days and so provide definitive regulations, procedures and information for each country about airspace and aerodromes. ICAO's standards also dictate that temporary hazards to aircraft are regularly published using NOTAMs.

ICAO defines an International Standard Atmosphere (also known as ICAO Standard Atmosphere), a model of the standard variation of pressure, temperature, density, and viscosity with altitude in the Earth's atmosphere. This is useful in calibrating instruments and designing aircraft.

ICAO standardizes machine-readable passports worldwide. Such passports have an area where some of the information otherwise written in textual form is written as strings of alphanumeric characters, printed in a manner suitable for optical character recognition. This enables border controllers and other law enforcement agents to process such passports quickly, without having to input the information manually into a computer. ICAO publishes Doc 9303 Machine Readable Travel Documents, the technical standard for machine-readable passports. A more recent standard is for biometric passports. These contain biometrics to authenticate the identity of travellers. The passport's critical information is stored on a tiny RFID computer chip, much like information stored on smartcards. Like some smartcards, the passport book design calls for an embedded contactless chip that is able to hold digital signature data to ensure the integrity of the passport and the biometric data.

ICAO is active in infrastructure management, including Communication, Navigation, Surveillance / Air Traffic Management (CNS/ATM) systems, which employ digital technologies (like satellite systems with various levels of automation) in order to maintain a seamless global air traffic management system.

Registered codes

Both ICAO and IATA have their own airport and airline code systems. ICAO uses 4-letter airport codes (vs. IATA's 3-letter codes). The ICAO code is based on the region and country of the airport—for example, Charles de Gaulle Airport has an ICAO code of LFPG, where L indicates Southern Europe, F, France, PG, Paris de Gaulle, while Orly Airport has the code LFPO (the 3rd letter sometimes refers to the particular flight information region (FIR) or the last two may be arbitrary). In most of the world, ICAO and IATA codes are unrelated; for example, Charles de Gaulle Airport has an IATA code of CDG and Orly, ORY. However, the location prefix for continental United States is K and ICAO codes are usually the IATA code with this prefix. For example, the ICAO code for Los Angeles International Airport is KLAX. Canada follows a similar pattern, where a prefix of C is usually added to an IATA code to create the ICAO code. For example, Edmonton International Airport is YEG or CYEG. (In contrast, airports in Hawaii are in the Pacific region and so have ICAO codes that start with PH; Kona International Airport's code is PHKO.) Note that not all airports are assigned codes in both systems; for example, airports that do not have airline service do not need an IATA code.

ICAO also assigns 3-letter airline codes (versus the more-familiar 2-letter IATA codes—for example, UAL vs. UA for United Airlines). ICAO also provides telephony designators to aircraft operators worldwide, a one- or two-word designator used on the radio, usually, but not always, similar to the aircraft operator name. For example, the identifier for Japan Airlines International is JAL and the designator is Japan Air, but Aer Lingus is EIN and Shamrock. Thus, a Japan Airlines flight numbered 111 would be written as "JAL111" and pronounced "Japan Air One One One" on the radio, while a similarly numbered Aer Lingus would be written as "EIN111" and pronounced "Shamrock One One One".

ICAO maintains the standards for aircraft registration ("tail numbers"), including the alphanumeric codes that identify the country of registration. For example, airplanes registered in the United States have tail numbers starting with N.

ICAO is also responsible for issuing alphanumeric aircraft type codes containing two to four characters. These codes provide the identification that is typically used in flight plans. The Boeing 747 would use B741, B742, B743, etc., depending on the particular variant.

Regions and regional offices

ICAO has a headquarters and seven regional offices:

§  Headquarters – Montreal, Quebec, Canada

§  Asia and Pacific (APAC) – Bangkok, Thailand

§  Eastern and Southern African (ESAF) – Nairobi, Kenya

§  Europe and North Atlantic (EUR/NAT) – Paris, France

§  Middle East (MID) – Cairo, Egypt

§  North American, Central American and Caribbean (NACC) – Mexico City, Mexico

§  South American (SAM) – Lima, Peru

§  Western and Central African (WACAF) – Dakar, Sénégal

ICAO and climate change

Emissions from domestic aviation are included within the Kyoto targets agreed by countries. This has led to some national policies such as fuel and emission taxes for domestic air travel in the Netherlands and Norway, respectively. Although some countries tax the fuel used by domestic aviation, there is no duty on kerosene used on international flights.

ICAO is currently opposed to the inclusion of aviation in the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS). The EU, however, is pressing ahead with its plans to include aviation.

Annex	Description	Agency Responsible
ANNEX 01	Personnel Licensing	CASA
ANNEX 02	Rules of the Air	CASA
ANNEX 03	Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation	Airservices
ANNEX 04	Aeronautical Charts	Airservices
ANNEX 05	Units of Measurement to be used in Air and Ground Operations	Airservices
ANNEX 06	Operations Of Aircraft	CASA
ANNEX 07	Aircraft Nationality and Registration Marks	CASA
ANNEX 08	Airworthiness Of Aircraft	CASA
ANNEX 09	Facilitation	Infrastructure
ANNEX 10	Aeronautical Telecommunications	Airservices/CASA
ANNEX 11	Air Traffic Services	Airservices/CASA
ANNEX 12	Search and Rescue	Infrastructure (AMSA)
ANNEX 13	Aircraft Accident Investigation	Infrastructure (ATSB)
ANNEX 14	Aerodromes	CASA
ANNEX 15	Aeronautical Information Services	Airservices
ANNEX 16	Environment Protection	Infrastructure
ANNEX 17	Aviation Security	Infrastructure
ANNEX 18	The Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air	CASA
ANNEX 19	Safety Management	CASA

AVIATION MAINTENANCE

Choosing of engine and aircraft maintenance generally influences on flight safety. The number of engine inspections and diagnostic methods being applied during maintenance influences on the probability of determination of failures.

During maintenance of modern engines following techniques are applied:

­­– Maintenance by operating time.

– Maintenance by state, with the control of reliability level.

– Maintenance by the state, with parameter control.

    The method of maintenance by operating time is recommended for application to the aggregates failures of which directly influence on flight safety. To the units, which don’t have good controllability and interchangeability level, units’ good state of which decreases with operation time and aggregates for which there are no methods of technical state estimation. 15 percents of all aggregates is maintained by statistical data requirements.

            The method of maintenance with parameter controlling is the most progressive method. 30 percents of all aggregates maintained by this method. This technique is recommended to be applied for elements with good controllability, and these elements must have methods of non-destructive control. This category of maintenance is divided into following strategies:

– With periodical parameter controlling.

– With uninterrupted parameter controlling.

Aggregates which are maintained with the help of method of periodical parameter controlling: inlet vanes, rotor and nozzle blades. Application of modern electronic systems on the engine significantly increases the number of aggregates which are maintained by the uninterrupted parameter controlling.

 When failure of some element was detected during operation, element will be in operation till the limits of its pre failure state.

Engine maintenance consists of operative, periodical and special maintenance.

Operative engine maintenance includes following kinds of works:

– Visual inspection for determination of technical state of engine structural elements.

– Disassembling  and checking of oil and fuel systems filters.

– Fuel and oil systems inspections on the criteria of leakage presence.

– Oil level determination in the oil tanks.

Periodical maintenance consists of the following works:

–       Visual inspection with the help of the optical control methodic.

–       Cleaning of engine filters

–       Checking of correspondence of power lever position which is located in the cockpit, with levers on the engine.

–       Cleaning of oil tanks and heat exchangers.

–       Lubrication of engine details, which work with friction.

–       Changing of oil in the system.

During special maintenance, which executed after some accidents, works with special optical tools are performed at the engine.

Engine testing and starting

When engine was returned from repair plant, after some kinds of maintenance which was performed on the engine it is necessary to perform test starting of the engine in order to determine possible defects or deviations from normal operating mode.

Peculiarities of engine maintenance in low temperature conditions  

When the temperature of air is +5 and below, in the possibility of icing or in rainy and snow conditions it is necessary to perform following actions:

– To switch on engine anti icing system before its starting. Engine operation without help of this system is forbidden. It is allowed to switch off this system for short time in order to measure air parameters at the engine inlet.

–       To install engine protection screens immediately after engine shut down.

When air temperature is 0°С or less it is necessary:

1. To determine absence of ice on the engine inlet.

2. Check the possibility of fan rotor rotation. If fan rotor rotation is impossible it is necessary to blow air-gas channel with hot air of temperature not greater than 80°С till all ice on fan blades will disappear.

        When air temperature is – 40°С and lower, and engine was not in operation for the time greater than two hours it is necessary:

1. To heat engine by hot air with temperature not greater than 80°С, also air starter, oil-fuel heat exchangers, gear box, and oil tank must be heated  by this air.

2. Engine cold idling must be done.

         Possible failures of engine during operation and ways of their solution

         As the engine prototype was chosen engine of foreign manufacturer, we have no any data about possible failures. But statistical data of failures of our engines show that main reasons of engine failure practically don’t change for all engines. Failures of engine main units appear practically by technological defects, bad operating conditions and special cases of aircraft flight.

       For the analysis of failures special table with data was made. This table contents all possible failures , engine, which is the analog of projected engine. 

Conclusion

Because many aspects of maintenance are subject to the approval of a recognized authority, it should be fully understood that the information given in this part is of a general nature and is not intended as a substitute for any official instructions.  The comprehensive instructions covering the actual work to be done to support scheduled maintenance and unscheduled maintenance are contained in the aircraft maintenance manual. The maximum time an engine can remain installed in an aircraft (engine life) is limited to a fixed period agreed between the engine manufacturer and airworthiness authority. On some engines this period is referred to as the time between overhaul (T.B.O.) and on reaching it the engine is removed for

complete overhaul.

Because the T.B.O. is actually determined by the life of one or two assemblies within the engine, during overhaul, it is generally found that the other assemblies are mechanically sound and fit to continue in service for a much longer period. Therefore, with the introduction of modular engines and the improved inspection and monitoring techniques available, the T.B.O. method on limiting the engine’s life on-wing has been replaced by the ‘on-condition’ method.  Basically this means that a life is not declared for the total engine but only for certain parts of the engine. On reaching their life limit, these parts are replaced and the engine continues in service, the remainder of the engine being overhauled ‘on condition’. Modular constructed engines are particularly suited to this method, as the module containing a life limited part can be replaced by a similar module and the engine returned to service with minimum delay, The module is then disassembled for life limited part replacement, repair or complete overhaul as required.

M.moghadasi

Strength calculation of gas turbine engine main elements

Strength calculation of HPT 1st stage rotor blade

During engine operation static, dynamic and temperature loads act on a turbine rotor blade. Dynamic and temperature loads are not taken into account because of their analytical determination complexity, but they are assigned by statistical experimental data or considered for a strength safety factor selection.

Such operational static loads are the centrifugal forces of blade weights caused by rotor rotation, gas forces caused by action of gas flow around a blade airfoil and a difference of a gas pressure before and after a blade.

The centrifugal forces cause blade tensile deformations, its bending and torsion, and gas forces cause bending and torsion of the blades. For strength calculations the most loaded details of a gas turbine engine (GTE) rotor are selected. Such details are the elements of a high pressure (HP) rotor. Therefore the rotor blades and shafts of high pressure turbines (HPT) are selected as the objects for strength calculations.

The tensile stresses are largest in turbine rotor blades. The bending stresses are considerably smaller and make approximately 20…30 % of tensile stress value.

The given technique allows making a strength calculation of a turbine rotor blade in its root section at static loading caused by gas forces and owning centrifugal forces of profile part and shrouding cap. Other types of loads are not taken into account in view of their small values. The maximum stresses determine by toting of tensile and bending stresses in three points A, B and C of blade section, most remote from main axes of inertia.

Calculation will be finished by determination of blade function-ability with the help of long-term strength safety factor.

At blade strength calculation it is necessary to allow following:

·          it is necessary to recalculate the parameters of velocity triangle in blade mean radius for contouring of blade root section;

·          the material of rotor blade is selected according to a design temperature of a blade;

·          for simplification of blade strength calculations the area of cooling channels is not taken into account;

·          the total stresses in each point A, B and C are compared to a  long-term strength of a selected material on the basis of 100 hours for a design value of blade temperature.

·          The strength calculation of turbine rotor blade includes:

·          determination of gas flow parameters in blade root section for its contouring;

·          construction of an profile of blade root section and definition of its geometrical characteristics;

·          determination of tensile stresses in blade root section caused by centrifugal forces;

·          determination of bending stresses in specific points of blade root section caused by gas forces;

·          determination of total stresses in these three points of a profile;

·          determination of long-term strength safety factors in each of three specific points of blade root section;

·          conclusions about strength of a blade

TURBOFAN ENGINE DESIGN

These notes are part of my previews course project.i hope will be usefull for some people.

Brief description of designed engine construction

           Aircraft engine designed is a high by-pass dual rotor axial-flow advanced technology turbofan engine. It is designed for application on short and middle range aircrafts.Engine has following main parts: inlet unit, compressor unit, combustion chamber unit, turbine unit, casing, exhaust nozzle and thrust reversing unit.

Transonic fan and attached stages are driven by low pressure turbine. For provision of smooth streamlining of fan, wheel nose fairing is used. Aircraft engine designed has axial double-spool compressor. Number of stages is following: Fan – 1+3 attached stages; high pressure compressor – 9. Pressure ratio at take-off mode: in LPC – 1.6; in HPC – 14.5; summary – 24.5.

          Combustion chamber is annular type, made with modern technology, providing convenient operation and reparability.Turbine is axial type, reactive. Number of stages: HPT – 1; LPT – 4. Discs, blades and vanes of HPT are air-cooled; discs of LPT are air-cooled too.

Fuel: Jet fuel, TC-1, T-1, T-2, JET-A, -B, MIL-T-5624G JP-1, JP-4, JP-5, MIL-T-83133 JP-8

Oil: МК – 8, МК – 8П

Oil consumption: not more than 0.6  kg/h

Warranty lifetime – 30000 hrs . High and low pressure rotors don’t have mechanic link and different rotational frequency. Direction of rotors HPC and LPC rotation is left. Aircraft engine designed has 3 major modules that can be separated from the assembly to perform certain maintenance operations. 

These 3 major modules are fan major module, core major module and low pressure turbine major module. 

Peculiarities of engine construction

Compressor – axial, two-spool, thirteen stages (4 stages – LPC, 9 stages – HPC), HPC inlet  guide vanes – adjusted, HPC air bypass.

Combustion chamber –  annular type with pilot burners.

Gas turbine – 5 stages (1 stage — HPT, 4 stages — LPT), with cooling nozzle diaphragm vanes and blades of  HPT.

Jet nozzles of both flows – subsonic, not regulated.

Starting system – system with air turbo starter.

Description of the used constructional materials

Constructional materials chosen for designed engine structural elements are shown in table 2.1. These materials were chosen with accordance to all necessary requirements.

Table 2.1 – Designed engine constructional materials

Name of the assembly and detail	Constructional material
Intake fairing (spinner)	ВТ-6
Fan blade	ВТ-8
Fan disc	ВТ3-1
Casing	ВТ-6
Add blades	ВТ-М
Add guide vanes	ВТ-4
Diffuser	ВТ-8
HPC rotor discs of the:
1-8 stage	ВТ-8
9-11 stage	ВТ-18В
12-13 stage	ЭИ698ВД
HPC blades of the:
1-8 stage	ВТ3-1
9-13 stage	ЭИ-797ВД
HPC stator guide vanes of the:
1-5 stage	ВТ3-1
6-12 stage	ЭИ787ВД
13 stage	ВЖЛ-14
HPT discs	ЭИ698ВД
HPT blades	ЖС6УВИ
LPT discs	ЭИ698
LPT blades	ЖС6К

Name of the assembly and detail	Constructional material
Turbine casing	Х18Н9Т
Combustion chamber casing	ВЖ102
Flame tubes	ХН60В
Nozzle diaphragm	ЖС6К
Turbines deflectors	ЭИ437Б
HP rotor shaft	ЭП517-Ш
LP rotor shaft	ЭП517-Ш
Exhaust nozzle	ОТ4-1
Bearings	ШХ-15
Bolts, casing nuts	30ХГСА
Graphite seals	АГ1500
Contact ring seals:
Rings	Бр018
Outer rings	12ХН3А
Rubber sealing rings	Oil - and thermo- resistant rubber